Jump to content

Environmental movement

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Ecology movement)
For broader coverage of this topic, see Environmentalism.

Levels of air pollution rose during the Industrial Revolution, sparking the first modern environmental laws to be passed in the mid-19th century.
Part of a series on
Green politics
Sunflower symbol
Core topics
Four pillars
Perspectives
Intellectuals
Politicians
Organizations
Related topics

The environmental movement (sometimes referred to as the ecology movement) is a social movement that aims to protect the natural world from harmful environmental practices in order to create sustainable living.[1] In its recognition of humanity as a participant in (not an enemy of) ecosystems, the movement is centered on ecology, health, as well as human rights.

The environmental movement is an international movement, represented by a range of environmental organizations, from enterprises to grassroots and varies from country to country. Due to its large membership, varying and strong beliefs, and occasionally speculative nature, the environmental movement is not always united in its goals. At its broadest, the movement includes private citizens, professionals, religious devotees, politicians, scientists, nonprofit organizations, and individual advocates like former Wisconsin Senator Gaylord Nelson and Rachel Carson in the 20th century.

Since the 1970s, public awareness, environmental sciences, ecology, and technology have advanced to include modern focus points like ozone depletion, climate change, acid rain, mutation breeding, genetically modified crops and genetically modified livestock.

The climate movement can be regarded as a sub-type of the environmental movement.

Scope

[edit]
Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the air-polluting emissions from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.

The environmental movement contains a number of subcommunities, that have developed with different approaches and philosophies in different parts of the world. Notably, the early environmental movement experienced a deep tension between the philosophies of conservation and broader environmental protection.[2] In recent decades the rise to prominence of environmental justice, indigenous rights and key environmental crises like the climate crises, has led to the development of other environmentalist identities.

Focus points

[edit]
Further information: Environmentalism

The environmental movement is broad in scope and can include any topic related to the environment, conservation, and biology, as well as the preservation of landscapes, flora, and fauna for a variety of purposes and uses. See List of environmental issues. When an act of violence is committed against someone or some institution in the name of environmental defense it is referred to as eco-terrorism.

Genetically modified plants and animals

[edit]

Genetically modified plants and animals are said by some environmentalists to be inherently bad because they are unnatural. Others point out the possible benefits of GM crops such as water conservation through corn modified to be less "thirsty" and decreased pesticide use through insect-resistant crops. They also point out that some genetically modified livestock have accelerated growth which means there are shorter production cycles which again results in a more efficient use of feed.[5]

Besides genetically modified crops and livestock, synthetic biology is also on the rise and environmentalists argue that these also contain risks, if these organisms were ever to end up in nature. This, as unlike with genetically modified organisms, synthetic biology even uses base pairs that do not exist in nature.[6]

Anti-nuclear movement

[edit]

The anti-nuclear movement opposes the use of various nuclear technologies. The initial anti-nuclear objective was nuclear disarmament and later the focus began to shift to other issues, mainly opposition to the use of nuclear power. There have been many large anti-nuclear demonstrations and protests. The pro-nuclear movement consists of people, including former opponents of nuclear energy, who calculate that the threat to humanity from climate change is far worse than any risk associated with nuclear energy.

By the mid-1970s anti-nuclear activism had moved beyond local protests and politics to gain a wider appeal and influence. Although it lacked a single coordinating organization the anti-nuclear movement's efforts gained a great deal of attention, especially in the United Kingdom and United States.[7] In the aftermath of the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, many mass demonstrations took place. The largest one was held in New York City in September 1979 and involved 200,000 people.[8][9][10]

Examples of environmental protests

[edit]
Climate activists blockade British Airports Authority's headquarters for day of action.
"March Against Monsanto", Vancouver, Canada, 25 May 2013
Main article: List of environmental protests

Tree sitting is a form of activism in which the protester sits in a tree in an attempt to stop the removal of a tree or to impede the demolition of an area with the longest and most famous tree-sitter being Julia Butterfly Hill, who spent 738 days in a California Redwood, saving a three-acre tract of forest.[11] Also notable is the Yellow Finch tree sit, which was a 932-day blockade of the Mountain Valley Pipeline from 2018 to 2021.[12][13]

Sit-ins can be used to encourage social change, such as the Greensboro sit-ins, a series of protests in 1960 to stop racial segregation, but can also be used in ecoactivism, as in the Dakota Access Pipeline Protest.[14]

Notable environmental protests and campaigns include:

History

[edit]
Main articles: Environmentalism § History, and Conservation movement § History

The origins of the environmental movement in Europe and North America lay in response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of air pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste.[17]

Criticisms

[edit]
See also: Environmentalism § Criticism, Anti-environmentalism, and Criticism of the environmental movement in the United States

Conservative critics of the movement characterize it as radical and misguided. Especially critics of the United States Endangered Species Act, which has come under scrutiny lately,[when?] and the Clean Air Act, which they said conflict with private property rights, corporate profits and the nation's overall economic growth. Critics also challenge the scientific evidence for global warming. They argue that the environmental movement has diverted attention from more pressing issues.[18] Western environmental activists have also been criticized for performative activism, eco-colonialism, and enacting white savior tropes, especially celebrities who promote conservation in developing countries.[19][20]

When residents living near proposed developments organize opposition they are sometimes called "NIMBYS", short for "not in my back yard".[21]

By country

[edit]

Asia

[edit]

Bangladesh

[edit]

Mithun Roy Chowdhury, President, Save Nature & Wildlife (SNW), Bangladesh, insisted that the people of Bangladesh raise their voice against Tipaimukh Dam, being constructed by the Government of India. He said the Tipaimukh Dam project will be another "death trap for Bangladesh like the Farakka Barrage," which would lead to an environmental disaster for 50 million people in the Meghna River basin. He said that this project will start desertification in Bangladesh.[22][23][24][25]

Bangladesh was ranked the most polluted country in the world due to defective automobiles, particularly diesel-powered vehicles, and hazardous gases from industry. The air is a hazard to Bangladesh's human health, ecology, and economic progress.[26]

China

[edit]
Further information: Environmentalism in China

China's environmental movement is characterized by the rise of environmental NGOs, policy advocacy, spontaneous alliances, and protests that often only occur at the local level.[27] Environmental protests in China are increasingly expanding their scope of concerns, calling for broader participation "in the name of the public."[28]

The Chinese have realized the ability of riots and protests to have success and had led to an increase in disputes in China by 30% since 2005 to more than 50,000 events. Protests cover topics such as environmental issues, land loss, income, and political issues. They have also grown in size from about 10 people or fewer in the mid-1990s to 52 people per incident in 2004. China has more relaxed environmental laws than other countries in Asia, so many polluting factories have relocated to China, causing pollution in China.

Water pollution, water scarcity, soil pollution, soil degradation, and desertification are issues currently in discussion in China. The groundwater table of the North China Plain is dropping by 1.5 m (5 ft) per year. This groundwater table occurs in the region of China that produces 40% of the country's grain.[29][30] The Center for Legal Assistance to Pollution Victims works to confront legal issues associated with environmental justice by hearing court cases that expose the narratives of victims of environmental pollution.[31][page needed] As China continues domestic economic reforms and integration into global markets, there emerge new linkages between China's domestic environmental degradation and global ecological crisis.[32]

Comparing the experience of China, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan reveals that the impact of environmental activism is heavily modified by domestic political context, particularly the level of integration of mass-based protests and policy advocacy NGOs. Hinted by the history of neighboring Japan and South Korea, the possible convergence of NGOs and anti-pollution protests will have significant implications for Chinese environmental politics in the coming years.[33]

India

[edit]
Further information: Environmental movement in India

Environmental and public health is an ongoing struggle within India. The first seed of an environmental movement in India was the foundation in 1964 of Dasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh, a labour cooperative started by Chandi Prasad Bhatt. It was inaugurated by Sucheta Kriplani and founded on land donated by Shyma Devi. This initiative was eventually followed up with the Chipko movement starting in 1974.[34][35]

The most severe single event underpinning the movement was the Bhopal gas leakage on 3 December 1984.[36] 40 tons of methyl isocyanate was released, immediately killing 2,259 people and ultimately affecting 700,000 citizens.

India has a national campaign against Coca-Cola and Pepsi Cola plants due to their practices of drawing groundwater and contaminating fields with sludge. The movement is characterized by local struggles against intensive aquaculture farms. The most influential part of the environmental movement in India is the anti-dam movement. Dam creation has been thought of as a way for India to catch up with the West by connecting to the power grid with giant dams, coal or oil-powered plants, or nuclear plants. Jhola Aandolan a mass movement is conducting as fighting against polyethylene carry bags uses and promoting cloth/jute/paper carry bags to protect the environment and nature. Activists in the Indian environmental movement consider global warming, sea levels rising, and glaciers retreating decreasing the amount of water flowing into streams to be the biggest challenges for them to face in the early twenty-first century.[29] Eco Revolution movement has been started by Eco Needs Foundation[37] in 2008 from Aurangabad Maharashtra that seeks the participation of children, youth, researchers, spiritual and political leaders to organise awareness programmes and conferences. Child activists against air pollution in India and greenhouse gas emissions by India include Licypriya Kangujam. From the mid to late 2010s a coalition of urban and Indigenous communities came together to protect Aarey, a forest located in the suburbs of Mumbai.[38] Farming and indigenous communities have also opposed pollution and clearing caused by mining in states such as Goa, Odisha, and Chhattisgarh.[39]

Middle East

[edit]
Share of agricultural land which is irrigated (2015)

Environmental activism in the Arab world, including Middle East and North Africa (MENA), mobilizes around issues such as industrial pollution, and insistence that the government provides irrigation.[40] The League of Arab States has one specialized sub-committee, of 12 standing specialized subcommittees in the Foreign Affairs Ministerial Committees, which deals with Environmental Issues. Countries in the League of Arab States have demonstrated an interest in environmental issues, on paper some environmental activists have doubts about the level of commitment to environmental issues; being a part of the world community may have obliged these countries to portray concern for the environment. The initial level of environmental awareness may be the creation of a ministry of the environment. The year of establishment of a ministry is also indicative of the level of engagement. Saudi Arabia was the first to establish environmental law in 1992 followed by Egypt in 1994. Somalia is the only country without environmental law. In 2010 the Environmental Performance Index listed Algeria as the top Arab country at 42 of 163; Morocco was at 52 and Syria at 56. The Environmental Performance Index measures the ability of a country to actively manage and protect its environment and the health of its citizens. A weighted index is created by giving 50% weight for environmental health objective (health) and 50% for ecosystem vitality (ecosystem); values range from 0–100. No Arab countries were in the top quartile, and 7 countries were in the lowest quartile.[41]

South Korea and Taiwan

[edit]

South Korea and Taiwan experienced similar growth in industrialization from 1965 to 1990 with few environmental controls.[42] South Korea's Han River and Nakdong River were so polluted by unchecked dumping of industrial waste that they were close to being classified as biologically dead. Taiwan's formula for balanced growth was to prevent industrial concentration and encourage manufacturers to set up in the countryside. This led to 20% of the farmland being polluted by industrial waste and 30% of the rice grown on the island was contaminated with heavy metals. Both countries had spontaneous environmental movements drawing participants from different classes. Their demands were linked with issues of employment, occupational health, and agricultural crisis. They were also quite militant; the people learned that protesting can bring results. The polluting factories were forced to make immediate improvements to the conditions or pay compensation to victims. Some were even forced to shut down or move locations. The people were able to force the government to come out with new restrictive rules on toxins, industrial waste, and air pollution. All of these new regulations caused the migration of those polluting industries from Taiwan and South Korea to China and other countries in Southeast Asia with more relaxed environmental laws.

Conservation movements in India and Burma during Colonial times

[edit]

The modern conservation movement was manifested in the forests of India, with the practical application of scientific conservation principles. The conservation ethic that began to evolve included three core principles: human activity damaged the environment, there was a civic duty to maintain the environment for future generations, and scientific, empirically based methods should be applied to ensure this duty was carried out. James Ranald Martin was prominent in promoting this ideology, publishing many medico-topographical reports that demonstrated the scale of damage wrought through large-scale deforestation and desiccation, and lobbying extensively for the institutionalization of forest conservation activities in British India through the establishment of Forest Departments.[43]

The Madras Board of Revenue started local conservation efforts in 1842, headed by Alexander Gibson, a professional botanist who systematically adopted a forest conservation programme based on scientific principles. This was the first case of state management of forests in the world.[44] Eventually, the government under Governor-General Lord Dalhousie introduced the first permanent and large-scale forest conservation programme in the world in 1855, a model that soon spread to other colonies, as well as the United States. In 1860, the Department banned the use of shifting cultivation.[45] Hugh Cleghorn's 1861 manual, The forests and gardens of South India, became the definitive work on the subject and was widely used by forest assistants in the subcontinent.[46][47]

Dietrich Brandis joined the British service in 1856 as superintendent of the teak forests of Pegu division in eastern Burma. During that time Burma's teak forests were controlled by militant Karen tribals. He introduced the "taungya" system,[48] in which Karen villagers provided labour for clearing, planting, and weeding teak plantations. Also, he formulated new forest legislation and helped establish research and training institutions. Brandis as well as founded the Imperial Forestry School at Dehradun.[49][50]

Africa

[edit]

South Africa

[edit]
Main article: Environmental movement in South Africa

In 2022, a court in South Africa has confirmed the constitutional right of the country's citizens to an environment that isn't harmful to their health, which includes the right to clean air. The case is referred to "Deadly Air" case. The area includes one of South Africa's largest cities, Ekurhuleni, and a large portion of the Mpumalanga province.[51]

Americas

[edit]

Latin America

[edit]

After the International Environmental Conference in Stockholm in 1972 Latin American officials returned with a high hope of growth and protection of the fairly untouched natural resources. Governments spent millions of dollars, and created departments and pollution standards. However, the outcomes have not always been what officials had initially hoped. Activists blame this on growing urban populations and industrial growth. Many Latin American countries have had a large inflow of immigrants that are living in substandard housing. Enforcement of the pollution standards is lax and penalties are minimal; in Venezuela, the largest penalty for violating an environmental law is 50,000 bolivar fine ($3,400) and three days in jail. In the 1970s or 1980s, many Latin American countries were transitioning from military dictatorships to democratic governments.[52]

Brazil
[edit]
See also: Environmental issues in Brazil § Solutions and policies

In 1992, Brazil came under scrutiny with the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro. Brazil has a history of little environmental awareness. It has the highest biodiversity in the world and also the highest amount of habitat destruction. One-third of the world's forests lie in Brazil. It is home to the largest river, The Amazon, and the largest rainforest, the Amazon Rainforest. People have raised funds to create state parks and increase the consciousness of people who have destroyed forests and polluted waterways. From 1973 to the 1990s, and then in the 2000s, indigenous communities and rubber tappers also carried out blockades that protected much rainforest.[53] It is home to several organizations that have fronted the environmental movement. The Blue Wave Foundation was created in 1989 and has partnered with advertising companies to promote national education campaigns to keep Brazil's beaches clean. Funatura was created in 1986 and is a wildlife sanctuary program. Pro-Natura International is a private environmental organization created in 1986.[54]

From the late 2000s onwards community resistance saw the formerly pro-mining southeastern state of Minas Gerais cancel a number of projects that threatened to destroy forests. In northern Brazil’s Pará state the Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra (Landless Workers Movement) and others campaigned and took part in occupations and blockades against the environmentally harmful Carajás iron ore mine.[55]

United States

[edit]
Main article: Environmental movement in the United States
Original title page of Walden by Henry David Thoreau

The movement in the United States began in the late 19th century, out of concerns for protecting the natural resources of the West, with individuals such as John Muir and Henry David Thoreau making key philosophical contributions. Thoreau was interested in peoples' relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the 1854 book Walden, which argues that people should become intimately close with nature. Muir came to believe in nature's inherent right, especially after spending time hiking in Yosemite Valley and studying both the ecology and geology. He successfully lobbied congress to form Yosemite National Park and went on to set up the Sierra Club in 1892.[56] The conservationist principles as well as the belief in an inherent right of nature became the bedrock of modern environmentalism.

Beginning in the conservation movement at the beginning of the 20th century, the contemporary environmental movement's roots can be traced back to Rachel Carson's 1962 book Silent Spring, Murray Bookchin's 1962 book Our Synthetic Environment, and Paul R. Ehrlich's 1968 The Population Bomb. American environmentalists have campaigned against nuclear weapons and nuclear power in the 1960s and 1970s, acid rain in the 1980s, ozone depletion and deforestation in the 1990s, and most recently climate change and global warming.[53]

The United States passed many pieces of environmental legislation in the 1970s, such as the Clean Water Act,[57] the Clean Air Act, the Endangered Species Act, and the National Environmental Policy Act. These remain as the foundations for current environmental standards.

In the 1990s, the anti-environmental 'Wise Use' movement emerged in the United States.[58]

Europe

[edit]

The EU's environmental policy was formally founded by a European Council declaration and the first five-year environment programme was adopted.[59] The polluter pays principle was well established in environmental economics before it was included in the Single European Act.[60] Following the 1973 oil crisis the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) passed groundbreaking laws on energy efficiency.[61]

United Kingdom

[edit]
See also: Environmental direct action in the United Kingdom

The late 19th century saw the formation of the first wildlife conservation societies. The zoologist Alfred Newton published a series of investigations into the Desirability of establishing a 'Close-time' for the preservation of indigenous animals between 1872 and 1903. His advocacy for legislation to protect animals from hunting during the mating season led to the formation of the Plumage League (later the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) in 1889.[62] The society acted as a protest group campaigning against the use of great crested grebe and kittiwake skins and feathers in fur clothing.[63][better source needed] The Society attracted growing support from the suburban middle-classes,[64] and influenced the passage of the Sea Birds Preservation Act in 1869 as the first nature protection law in the world.[65][66]

For most of the century from 1850 to 1950, however, the primary environmental cause was the mitigation of air pollution. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke.

John Ruskin, an influential thinker who articulated the Romantic ideal of environmental protection and conservation

Systematic and general efforts on behalf of the environment only began in the late 19th century; it grew out of the amenity movement in Britain in the 1870s, which was a reaction to industrialization, the growth of cities, and worsening air and water pollution. Starting with the formation of the Commons Preservation Society in 1865, the movement championed rural preservation against the encroachments of industrialisation. Robert Hunter, solicitor for the society, worked with Hardwicke Rawnsley, Octavia Hill, and John Ruskin to lead a successful campaign to prevent the construction of railways to carry slate from the quarries, which would have ruined the unspoilt valleys of Newlands and Ennerdale. This success led to the formation of the Lake District Defence Society (later to become The Friends of the Lake District).[67][68]

In 1893 Hill, Hunter and Rawnsley agreed to set up a national body to coordinate environmental conservation efforts across the country; the "National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty" was formally inaugurated in 1894.[69] The organisation obtained secure footing through the 1907 National Trust Bill, which gave the trust the status of a statutory corporation.[70] and the bill was passed in August 1907.[71]

Early interest in the environment was a feature of the Romantic movement in the early 19th century. The poet William Wordsworth had travelled extensively in England's Lake District and wrote that it is a "sort of national property in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy".[72][73]

An early "Back-to-Nature" movement, which anticipated the romantic ideal of modern environmentalism, was advocated by intellectuals such as John Ruskin, William Morris, and Edward Carpenter, who were all against consumerism, pollution and other activities that were harmful to the natural world.[74] The movement was a reaction to the urban conditions of the industrial towns, where sanitation was awful, pollution levels intolerable and housing terribly cramped.[75]

An early "Back-to-Nature" movement, which anticipated the romantic ideal of modern environmentalism, was advocated by intellectuals such as John Ruskin, William Morris, George Bernard Shaw and Edward Carpenter, who were all against consumerism, pollution and other activities that were harmful to the natural world.[74] The movement was a reaction to the urban conditions of the industrial towns, where sanitation was awful, pollution levels intolerable and housing terribly cramped.[75] Idealists championed the rural life as a mythical utopia and advocated a return to it. John Ruskin argued that people should return to a "small piece of English ground, beautiful, peaceful, and fruitful. We will have no steam engines upon it ... we will have plenty of flowers and vegetables ... we will have some music and poetry; the children will learn to dance to it and sing it."[76] Ruskin moved out of London and together with his friends started to think about the post-industrial society. The predictions Ruskin made for the post-coal utopia coincided with forecasting published by the economist William Stanley Jevons.[77] Practical ventures in the establishment of small cooperative farms were even attempted and old rural traditions, without the "taint of manufacture or the canker of artificiality", were enthusiastically revived, including the Morris dance and the maypole.[78]

In 1952 the Great London Smog episode killed thousands of people and led the UK to create the first Clean Air Act in 1956. In 1957 the first major nuclear accident occurred in Windscale in northern England. The supertanker Torrey Canyon ran aground off the coast of Cornwall in 1967, causing the first major oil leak that killed marine life along the coast.

Oceania

[edit]

Australia

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Environmental movement in Australia.[edit]
A climate change rally in Melbourne on 5 July 2008

Beginning as a conservation movement, the environmental movement in Australia was the first in the world to become a political movement. Australia is home to United Tasmania Group, the world's first green party.[79][80]

The environmental movement is represented by a wide range of groups sometimes called non-governmental organizations (NGOs). These exist on local, national, and international scales. Environmental NGOs vary widely in political views and in the amount they seek to influence environmental policy in Australia and elsewhere. The environmental movement today consists of both large national groups and also many smaller local groups with local concerns.[81] There are also 5,000 Landcare groups in the six states and two mainland territories. Other environmental issues within the scope of the movement include forest protection, climate change and opposition to nuclear activities.[82][83]

In Australia, the movement has seen a growth in popularity through prominent Australian environmentalists such as Bob Brown, Peter Garrett, Steve Irwin, Tim Flannery, and David Fleay.

New Zealand

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Environmental movement in New Zealand.[edit]
Part of a protest march held in 2003 voicing opposition to genetic engineering, making its way up Queen St, a main thoroughfare of Auckland
The environmental movement in New Zealand started in the 1950s, a period of rapid social change. Since then multiple high-profile national campaigns have contested various environmental issues including forest protection, transport decarbonisation, and coal mining.[84][85][86] The environmental movement eventually spawned the Values Party, which was the first political party with a strong focus on environmental issues to contest national elections. The Values Party eventually morphed into the Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ McCormick, John (1991). Reclaiming Paradise: The Global Environmental Movement. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-20660-2. Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 8 April 2023.
  2. ^ Tesch, Danielle; Kempton, Willett (1 January 2004). "Who is an Environmentalist? The Polysemy of Environmentalist Terms and Correlated Environmental Actions". Journal of Ecological Anthropology. 8 (1): 67–83. doi:10.5038/2162-4593.8.1.4. ISSN 1528-6509.
  3. ^ Size, Julie; London, Jonathan K. (July 2008). "Environmental Justice at the Crossroads". Sociology Compass. 2 (4): 1331–1354. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9020.2008.00131.x.
  4. ^ Schlosberg, David (2007). Defining Environmental Justice. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199286294.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-928629-4.
  5. ^ Rincon, Paul (25 February 2015). "Is the world ready for GM animals?". BBC. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
  6. ^ "FUTURE BRIEF : Synthetic biology and biodiversity" (PDF). European Commission. September 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 October 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
  7. ^ Walker, J. Samuel (2004). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective Archived 23 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine (Berkeley: University of California Press), pp. 10–11.
  8. ^ Hrebenar, Ronald J.; Scott, Ruth K. (16 August 1997). Interest Group Politics in America. M.E. Sharpe. p. 149. ISBN 9781563247033. Retrieved 16 August 2018 – via Internet Archive. nevada test site protest demonstration.
  9. ^ Giugni, Marco (16 August 2018). Social Protest and Policy Change: Ecology, Antinuclear, and Peace Movements in Comparative Perspective. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 45. ISBN 9780742518278. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 16 August 2018 – via Google Books.
  10. ^ Herman, Robin (24 September 1979). "Nearly 200,000 Rally to Protest Nuclear Energy". The New York Times. p. B1.
  11. ^ Fountain, Henry (18 June 2006). "Rising Above the Environmental Debate". The New York Times.
  12. ^ Hammack, Laurence (12 November 2020). "Judge orders tree-sitters down after more than 2 years". The Roanoke Times.
  13. ^ Dhillon, Matt (16 April 2021). "Last Tree-sitters Removed from Path of Mountain Valley Pipeline". The Appalachian Voice.
  14. ^ Mele, Christopher (2016). "Veterans To Serve as 'Human Shields' for Dakota Pipeline Protestors". The New York Times.
  15. ^ "Climate crisis: 6 million people join latest wave of global protests". TheGuardian.com. 27 September 2019.
  16. ^ "Greta Thunberg is leading kids and adults from 150 countries in a massive Friday climate strike". 17 September 2019.
  17. ^ Fleming, James R.; Bethany R. Knorr. "History of the Clean Air Act". American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 14 February 2006.
  18. ^ Chapman, Roger (2010). Culture wars: an encyclopedia of issues, viewpoints, and voices. M.E. Sharpe, Inc. pp. 162. ISBN 978-0-7656-1761-3.
  19. ^ Abidin, Crystal; Brockington, Dan; Goodman, Michael K.; Mostafanezhad, Mary; Richey, Lisa Ann (17 October 2020). "The Tropes of Celebrity Environmentalism". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 45 (1): 387–410. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-081703. ISSN 1543-5938.
  20. ^ Dillon, Nina M. (1991). "The Feasibility of Debt-For-Nature Swaps". North Carolina Journal of International Law and Commercial Regulation. 16: 127. Archived from the original on 28 August 2022. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
  21. ^ "Definition of Nimby". Macmillan Dictionary. Archived from the original on 21 July 2015. Retrieved 17 July 2015.
  22. ^ "Protest against the Tipaimukh Dam by Save Nature & Wildlife (SNW), Bangladesh". Newstoday.com.bd. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
  23. ^ "Long march against Tipai dam begins". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 2 September 2016.
  24. ^ "Protest against Tipaimukh dam". Thefinancialexpress-bd.com. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
  25. ^ "Protest tipai Dam". Kalerkantho.com. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
  26. ^ Rabin, Mominul Haque; Wang, Qingyue; Kabir, Md Humayun; Wang, Weiqian (January 2023). "Pollution characteristics and risk assessment of potentially toxic elements of fine street dust during COVID-19 lockdown in Bangladesh". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 30 (2): 4323–4345. Bibcode:2023ESPR...30.4323R. doi:10.1007/s11356-022-22541-8. ISSN 0944-1344. PMC 9377810. PMID 35971052.
  27. ^ Fengshi Wu (2009). "Environmental Activism and Civil Society Development in China: 15 Years in Review" (PDF). Harvard-Yenching Institute Working Paper Series. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 March 2017. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
  28. ^ Christoph Steinhardt; Fengshi Wu (2016). "In the Name of the Public: Environmental Protest and the Changing Landscape of Popular Contention in China". The China Journal. 75: 61–82. doi:10.1086/684010. S2CID 102491027.
  29. ^ a b Bello, Walden (12 October 2007). "The Environmental Movement in the Global South". Transnational Institute. Archived from the original on 5 June 2013. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
  30. ^ Guha, Ramachandra. The Last Liberal. Permanent Black. pp. 27–28.
  31. ^ Yang, Guobin (2005). "Environmental NGOs and Institutional Dynamics in China". The China Quarterly. 181: 44–66. doi:10.1017/S0305741005000032. S2CID 15522940. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
  32. ^ Fengshi Wu; Richard Edmonds (2017). "Chapter 7: Environmental degradation in China". In Czes Tubilewicz (ed.). Critical Issues in Contemporary China: Unity, Stability and Development. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 105–119.
  33. ^ Fengshi Wu; Wen Bo (2014). "Nongovernmental Organizations and Environmental Protest: Impacts in East Asia". In Graeme Lang; Paul Harris (eds.). Routledge Handbook of Environment and Society in Asia. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 105–119.
  34. ^ Badri, Adarsh (4 March 2024). "Feeling for the Anthropocene: affective relations and ecological activism in the global South". International Affairs. 100 (2): 731–749. doi:10.1093/ia/iiae010. ISSN 0020-5850.
  35. ^ Badri, Adarsh (3 June 2024). "Chipko's Lessons for Today's Global Environmentalism – Adarsh Badri". Retrieved 19 July 2024.
  36. ^ Taylor, Alan. "Bhopal: The World's Worst Industrial Disaster, 30 Years Later - The Atlantic". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 6 June 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
  37. ^ "Welcome to Eco Needs Foundation". Econeeds.org. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
  38. ^ Harris, Kenzie; Jhaveri, Radhika (6 February 2024). "Commons Conversations: Insights into Environmental Justice Movements in India with Radhika Jhaveri". The Commons Social Change Library. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  39. ^ Smit, Jan Paul (21 November 2022). "Mining Resistance in India". The Commons Social Change Library. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  40. ^ Harry Verhoevenn (2018). Environmental Politics in the Middle East. Oxford University Press. p. 28. ISBN 9780190050139.
  41. ^ Djoundourian, Salpie (1 August 2011). "Environmental movement in the Arab world". Environment, Development and Sustainability. 13 (4): 743–758. Bibcode:2011EDSus..13..743D. doi:10.1007/s10668-011-9287-7. S2CID 153447715.
  42. ^ Wu and Wen (2015). Nongovernmental organizations and environmental protests: Impacts in East Asia (chapter 7 of Routledge Handbook of Environment and Society in Asia). London: Routledge. pp. 105–119. ISBN 978-0-415-65985-7.
  43. ^ Stebbing, E.P (1922). The Forests of India. Vol. 1. pp. 72–81. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
  44. ^ Barton, Greg (2002). Empire Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism. Cambridge University Press. p. 48. ISBN 9781139434607. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
  45. ^ MUTHIAH, S. (5 November 2007). "A life for forestry". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Archived from the original on 8 November 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
  46. ^ Cleghorn, Hugh Francis Clarke (1861). The Forests and Gardens of South India. London: W. H. Allen. OCLC 301345427. Archived from the original on 15 March 2020. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
  47. ^ Oliver, J.W. (1901). "Forestry in India". The Indian Forester. Vol. 27. Allahabad: R. P. Sharma. pp. 617–623. Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
  48. ^ King, KFS (1968). Agro-silviculture (the taungya system). Bulletin no. 1. University of Ibadan / Dept. of Forestry. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
  49. ^ Weil, Benjamin (2006). "Conservation, Exploitation, and Cultural Change in the Indian Forest Service, 1875–1927". Environmental History. 11 (2): 319–343. doi:10.1093/envhis/11.2.319. JSTOR 3986234.
  50. ^ Gadgil, Madhav; Guha, Ramachandra (1993). This Fissured Land: An Ecological History of India. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520082960. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
  51. ^ Garland, Rebecca (23 March 2022). "South African court rules that clean air is a constitutional right: what needs to change". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 6 March 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2023.
  52. ^ Figdor, Carrie (24 July 1988). "Latin America's Environmental Movement Seen as Well-Meaning but Inadequate". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 20 February 2013.
  53. ^ a b McIntyre, Iain (8 July 2024). "Environmental blockading timeline, 1974-1997" (PDF). Commons Social Change Library. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  54. ^ Brooke, Elizabeth Heilman (2 June 1992). "As Forests Fall, Environmental Movement Rises in Brazil". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 May 2013. Retrieved 20 February 2013.
  55. ^ Smit, Jan Paul (21 November 2022). "Mining Resistance in Brazil". The Commons Social Change Library. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  56. ^ Wulf, Andrea (2015). The Invention of Nature: Alexander Von Humboldt's New World. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-385-35066-2. Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 26 June 2023.
  57. ^ HALL, RIDGWAY M. (1978). "The Clean Water Act of 1977". Natural Resources Lawyer. 11 (2): 343–372. ISSN 0028-0747. JSTOR 40912265. Archived from the original on 6 March 2023. Retrieved 8 April 2023.
  58. ^ Helvarg, David (4 December 2007). "The war on the greens". Peace Review. 7 (3–4): 393–397. doi:10.1080/10402659508425907. ISSN 1040-2659.
  59. ^ Lafferty, William M.; Meadowcroft, James (2000). Implementing Sustainable Development: Strategies and Initiatives in High Consumption Societies. OUP Oxford. ISBN 9780191522277.
  60. ^ Suzanne Kingston; Veerle Heyvaert; Aleksandra Čavoški (2017). European Environmental Law. Cambridge University Press. p. 100. ISBN 9781107014701.
  61. ^ Stephen G. Gross (2023). Energy and Power: Germany in the Age of Oil, Atoms, and Climate Change. Oxford University Press. p. 296. ISBN 9780197667712.
  62. ^ Hickling, James (1 June 2021). "The Vera Causa of Endangered Species Legislation: Alfred Newton and the Wild Bird Preservation Acts, 1869–1894". Journal of the History of Biology. 54 (2): 275–309. doi:10.1007/s10739-021-09633-w. ISSN 1573-0387. PMID 33782819. S2CID 254553730.
  63. ^ "Conservation biology". hmoob.in. Archived from the original on 5 March 2023. Retrieved 8 April 2023.
  64. ^ Mycoo, Michelle (January 2006). "The Retreat of the Upper and Middle Classes to Gated Communities in the Poststructural Adjustment Era: The Case of Trinidad". Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space. 38 (1): 131–148. Bibcode:2006EnPlA..38..131M. doi:10.1068/a37323. ISSN 0308-518X. S2CID 143766333.
  65. ^ G. Baeyens; M. L. Martinez (2007). Coastal Dunes: Ecology and Conservation. Springer. p. 282.
  66. ^ Makel, Jo (2 February 2011). "Protecting seabirds at Bempton Cliffs". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
  67. ^ Yoshikawa, Saeko (2020). William Wordsworth and Modern Travel: Railways, Motorcars and the Lake District 1830-1940. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9781789621181.
  68. ^ "Canon Hardwicke Drummond Rawnsley" Archived 6 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Visitcumbria.com, accessed 17 May 2009
  69. ^ "A Proposed National Trust", The Times, 17 July 1894, p. 12
  70. ^ "Parliamentary Committees", The Times, 26 July 1907. p. 4
  71. ^ "An Act to incorporate and confer powers upon the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty" Archived 2 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine, The National Trust. Retrieved 4 June 2012
  72. ^ Wordsworth, William (1835). A guide through the district of the lakes in the north of England with a description of the scenery, &c. for the use of tourists and residents (5th ed.). Kendal, England: Hudson and Nicholson. p. 88. sort of national property in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy.
  73. ^ "Nature conservation in Britain, ca. 1870–1945". Archived from the original on 22 January 2013. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
  74. ^ a b Gould, Peter C. (1988). Early Green Politics, Brighton, Harvester Press, pgs. 15–19, and Wall, Derek, (1994) Green History: A Reader. London, Routledge, pgs. 9–14.
  75. ^ a b Marsh, Jan (1982). Back to the Land: The Pastoral Impulse in England, 1880–1914. Quartet Books. ISBN 9780704322769.
  76. ^ Jan Marsh (1982). Back to the Land: The Pastoral Impulse in England, 1880–1914. Quartet Books. ISBN 978-0-7043-2276-9.
  77. ^ Mark Bevir, ed. (2017). Historicism and the Human Sciences in Victorian Britain. Cambridge University Press. p. 186. ISBN 9781316738948.
  78. ^ "'Back to nature' movement nothing new – dates back to 1880". The Christian Science Monitor. 15 December 1983. Archived from the original on 16 December 2013. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
  79. ^ "History". Australian Greens. May 2010. Archived from the original on 11 March 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2013.
  80. ^ Rootes, C. (1 June 2001). "Review article - Environmentalism in Australia". Environmental Politics. 10 (2): 134–139. doi:10.1080/714000542. ISSN 0964-4016. S2CID 145716321.
  81. ^ Fielding, Kelly; Gulliver, Robyn; Louis, Winnifred (4 April 2022). "The Characteristics, Activities and Goals of Australian Environmental Activist Groups". The Commons Social Change Library. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  82. ^ McIntyre, Iain (4 November 2020). "Environmental Blockading in Australia and Around the World - Timeline 1974-1997". The Commons Social Change Library. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  83. ^ Gulliver, Robyn (11 October 2022). "Australian Campaign Case Study: Stop Adani, 2012 - 2022". The Commons Social Change Library. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  84. ^ McIntyre, Iain (8 July 2024). "Environmental blockading timeline, 1974-1997". Commons Social Change Library.
  85. ^ Gulliver, Robyn (20 March 2023). "Auckland Transport Decarbonisation Campaign (2020 - 2022)". The Commons Social Change Library. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  86. ^ Hunter, Daniel (5 March 2024). "What to do when we 'Lose'". The Commons Social Change Library. Retrieved 8 July 2024.


Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_movement&oldid=1288956466"